Ancient Egypt

Background

For centuries, the epic, 3,000-year history of ancient Egypt lay mostly forgotten. It wasn't until the late 18th century that the conquering armies of Napoleon plundered its treasures and jump-started an "Egyptomania" that endures today.

The era's monumental sphinx and pyramids, mystifying hieroglyphs, and obsession with the afterlife—most famously via its decked-out tombs and durable mummies—have captivated generations of history buffs and tourists (watch 101).

The Nile River

Ancient historians described Egyptian civilization as the "gift of the Nile" (read explainer). The vast, complex culture ebbed and flowed on the 4,000-mile-long, north-flowing river, whose predictable annual flooding—caused by snowmelt and rains in the Ethiopian highlands—nourished its banks.

Lifeless deserts stretching beyond the river provided natural barriers and lent geographic coherence to early unification efforts (see map).

Three Millennia of Kingdoms

Historians divide Egypt's timeline into three kingdoms: the Old, Middle, and New. A long, broken line of kings further divides its timeline into 31 dynasties (see dynasties). 

The Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BCE) saw the creation of some of Egypt's most iconic structures: the massive Giza pyramids and the Great Sphinx (watch monuments tour).

The Middle Kingdom (2134-1690 BCE) expanded its boundaries and firmed up its military amid a cultural Renaissance that saw some of Egypt's greatest works of literature produced. 

The New Kingdom (1549-1069 BCE) stretched Egypt's borders and wealth to its largest extent, making it a target of successive invasions by the Assyrians, Persians, Macedonians, and Romans.

Power and Politics

Egyptian power began and ended with the all-powerful pharaoh, a Greek term meaning "great house," which only became common usage in modern times.

Pharaohs, whose rule was based on the divine right of kings, managed a sprawling bureaucracy of officials and scribes, masters of the burgeoning art of hieroglyphic writing. Regional leaders known as nomarchs governed smaller areas called nomes.

Religion

Over 2,000 deities made up the evolving Egyptian pantheon, from Osiris—the mythical source of the Nile—to Amun-Ra, the empire's chief god. The temple was both the religious and political focal point of the city.

At death, Egyptians believed a person's spiritual parts were separated from the body but required the physical remains or a replica as a place to live. This belief gave rise to mummification (how it works) and extravagant tomb-making.

Culture

The ancient Egyptians can claim one of the earliest forms of written language, one of the oldest bodies of literature, as well as the prototype of paper: papyrus, made from river reeds.

They also mastered basic operations in math, developed the first solar calendar, and established the first 24-hour day. 

Antiquities Today

Amid continuing worldwide interest in Egyptology, Egypt today looks to repatriate historical artifacts in private collections or public museums—removed from Egypt over centuries—to their land of origin. An estimated $3B worth of illicit antiquities are traded each year.